斯德哥尔摩国际和平研究所-The-use-of-chemical-weapons-in-the-1935–36-Italo_7页_197kb

1935-36 Italo-Ethiopian War: Use of Chemical Weapons

I. Introduction

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War began on 3 October 1935 when Italian forces invaded Ethiopia. The conflict was rooted in historical tensions dating back to 1887, with the 1934 Wal Wal incident escalating hostilities. Ethiopia, under Emperor Haile Selassie, faced a significant military disadvantage compared to Italy, which had more modern equipment, including tanks and a larger air force. The war was notable for Italy's use of chemical weapons, particularly sulphur mustard, and for the lack of effective international response due to the League of Nations' consensus-based decision-making.

II. Use of Chemical Weapons in the War

• Timing of Use: Chemical weapons were first used by Italy in December 1935 during the Ethiopian "Christmas offensive." The use escalated throughout the war.
• Types of Chemical Weapons:
  • Sulphur Mustard: Used in air bombs and later via aerial spray tanks. It was particularly effective due to the Ethiopian soldiers' traditional clothing, which left their skin exposed.
  • Diphenylchloroarsine: A World War I irritant used in artillery shells.
• Impact:
  • Caused significant casualties and long-term injuries.
  • Contributed to the demoralization of Ethiopian forces.
  • Strategic use to protect supply lines and disrupt Ethiopian operations.
• Casualty Estimates:
  • A Soviet estimate suggested that 15,000 of Ethiopia's 50,000 war casualties were due to chemical weapons.
  • Exact numbers remain uncertain due to the nature of the conflict and exaggerated reports.

III. Italy's Chemical Warfare Capability

• Artillery and Bombs: Italy used 105-mm artillery shells filled with sulphur mustard and diphenylchloroarsine, as well as 4336 and 540 aerial bombs.
• Storage Facilities: Chemical warfare storage was maintained in Libya (Benghazi and Tripoli).
• Post-War Evidence: British forces captured chemical warfare materials in Benina during World War II, including 96 drums of blister agent (likely sulphur mustard).

IV. Reaction to Chemical Weapon Use

• Ethiopian Protests: Haile Selassie and the Ethiopian foreign minister repeatedly protested the use of chemical weapons to the League of Nations.
• International Reporting:
  • European military observers and medical staff reported on chemical weapon use.
  • Medical staff described the effects of sulphur mustard, including its appearance, smell, and the injuries it caused.
• Italian Accusations: Italy accused Ethiopia of violating the Geneva Protocol through the use of dum dum bullets and attacks on non-combatants.
• Major Fiske's Reports: A US military observer, Major Norman E. Fiske, documented initial phases of the war for the US Army's Intelligence Division.
• Selassie's Speech: In June 1936, Haile Selassie condemned Italy's use of chemical weapons and accused the League of Nations of violating its Covenant.

V. Legal Considerations

• Geneva Protocol: Both Ethiopia and Italy were signatories to the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which banned the use of chemical and bacteriological weapons.
• Retaliation Clause: Some states reserved the right to retaliate if attacked with chemical weapons or if hostilities were against a non-signatory.
• Italy's Legal Argument: Italy claimed that the protocol did not prohibit retaliation for war crimes, though this argument was not widely accepted.

VI. End of the War and Aftermath

• Outcome: Italy annexed Ethiopia in 1936 after occupying Addis Ababa. Haile Selassie fled the country.
• International Response: The League of Nations failed to intervene effectively, reflecting the political climate of the 1930s and the organization's reliance on consensus.
• Post-War Acknowledgment: In 1996, Italy officially admitted using chemical weapons in Ethiopia, confirming earlier allegations.
• Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC): Both Ethiopia and Italy are now parties to the 1993 CWC, which mandates the destruction of abandoned chemical weapons. Some chemical munitions from the war may still be present on Ethiopian soil.

VII. Key Towns Attacked with Chemical Weapons

VIII. Conclusion

The use of chemical weapons by Italy in the 1935-36 Italo-Ethiopian War was a significant and controversial aspect of the conflict. Despite international condemnation and reports of its effects, the League of Nations failed to act decisively. The war highlighted the limitations of the League of Nations in enforcing its own principles and the broader context of chemical warfare development during the interwar period. Today, both Ethiopia and Italy are bound by the Chemical Weapons Convention, which requires the destruction of any abandoned chemical weapons.