2012年-世界发展银行全球_Review_of_Urban_Air_Quality_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa_Region___Air_Quality_Profile_of_SSA_Countries_251页_2mb

报告摘要

Summary of Urban Air Quality in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

Core Content

This report provides an in-depth review of urban air quality (AQ) in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, focusing on policies, governance, emissions, monitoring, modelling, impacts, and financial challenges. It also highlights best practices and case studies from various nations in the region.

Main Issues in Urban Air Quality

High Urban Growth Rates: SSA experiences the highest urban population growth globally, with rates of 3.3 to 3.7% annually. This leads to increased motorisation, economic activity, and thus air pollution if not managed.
Air Pollution Sources:
- Fossil fuels used in transport, power generation, and industry.
- Open burning of solid waste and agricultural waste.
- Use of outdated and poorly maintained vehicles.
- Lack of cleaner fuels and insufficient infrastructure.
Health and Environmental Impacts:
- Air pollution contributes to respiratory ailments, especially in children.
- It affects ecosystems, agriculture, and materials through acidification, eutrophication, and ground-level ozone.
- Long-term studies on health and environmental impacts are lacking in most countries.

Key Findings

1.2.1 Policies

All SSA countries are parties to the Montreal Protocol and Convention on Climate Change.
Most have developed environmental protection legislation, but only Botswana and South Africa have specific air quality management (AQM) legislation.
Madagascar is the only country with a fully developed AQM system, while Ghana and Tanzania are in the process of developing one.
Benin only addresses mobile sources, ignoring industrial and transboundary pollution.

1.2.2 Governance

Lack of institutional capacity: Many countries lack dedicated agencies for AQM, leading to fragmented responsibilities.
Poor stakeholder participation: Public, media, and academia are not sufficiently involved in AQM strategies.
Need for capacity building: Training programs and specialized skills are essential to improve AQM capabilities.

1.2.3 Emissions

Only five countries have set emission standards for mobile sources: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Madagascar, and Uganda.
Four countries have emission standards for stationary sources: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Kenya, and Mauritius.
No emission inventories exist in any of the 26 countries, which hinders dispersion modelling and source apportionment studies.

1.2.4 Air Quality Monitoring

Only seven countries (Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) have operational monitoring systems.
Nigeria and Senegal have some monitoring experience, but it is limited.
Monitoring systems are often not spatially or temporally representative.
QA/QC procedures are essential for ensuring data reliability.

1.2.5 Modelling

AQ modelling is rarely applied in SSA due to lack of reliable emission data and source apportionment experience.
Dispersion models can help in understanding pollutant distribution and transboundary pollution.

1.2.6 Impacts

Limited health and environmental impact studies: Only a few countries have conducted studies on health impacts.
Economic impact assessments exist in Burkina Faso and Senegal.
Mali reports increased accidents due to reduced visibility.
Nigeria is planning studies on acidification, urban temperature, and health impacts.

1.2.7 Finances

Low priority for AQM funding in most countries.
Under-funding and lack of transparency in resource allocation.
Need for financial incentives and support from international development agencies to improve AQM.

Best Practices in the SSA Region

1.4.1 Fuel Specifications

Leaded gasoline phased out in SSA since January 2006.
Fuel specifications for sulphur, aromatics, and olefins are not yet set or updated in most countries.
World Bank is working on a study to develop regional harmonised fuel standards.

1.4.2 Emission Standards

Burkina Faso, Kenya, Madagascar, and Uganda have emission standards for vehicles.
These standards cover CO, NOx, HCs, and VOCs.

1.4.3 Air Quality Standards

Nine countries have set or proposed AQ standards.
Enforcement is weak in some countries due to lack of monitoring data.

1.4.4 Action Plan

Need for integrated AQM strategies and national action plans.
Collaboration between countries and international bodies is crucial for effective AQ management.

1.4.5 Monitoring Network

Automated samplers and diffusive monitors are recommended for cost-effective AQ monitoring.
Monitoring should be expanded to cover commercial, industrial, and residential areas.

1.4.6 Follow-up to Leaded Gasoline Phase-out

Monitoring blood lead levels in high-risk groups is a key follow-up measure.
This helps in assessing the health impacts of leaded gasoline phase-out.

Conclusion

The report highlights the urgent need for comprehensive AQ management in SSA, emphasizing the importance of legislation, governance, monitoring, and financial support. While some countries have made progress in AQM, the majority lack the necessary frameworks and resources. Best practices include setting fuel and emission standards, establishing monitoring networks, and using dispersion models to understand pollution sources and impacts. The DPSIR framework is suggested as a tool to structure AQM efforts.

Country-Specific Insights

Madagascar and Ghana are working on AQM systems.
Mauritius has the most comprehensive emission standards.
Nigeria is planning extensive studies on air pollution impacts.
Tanzania has a monitoring capacity building project.
Zambia and Congo Brazzaville have limited monitoring capabilities.

Recommendations

Develop comprehensive AQM legislation.
Improve institutional set-up and stakeholder participation.
Establish routine AQ monitoring systems.
Conduct emission inventories and source apportionment studies.
Enhance financial support and capacity building.
Use international collaboration and best practices to guide AQM efforts.