世界银行-固本：东亚及太平洋地区的教师与基础教育（英）-2023-158页_5mb

Fixing the Foundation: Teachers and Basic Education in East Asia and Pacific

Introduction and Objectives

This report examines the state of basic education in middle-income East Asia-Pacific countries, focusing on foundational learning (literacy and numeracy) and the role of teachers. The region faces persistent challenges in achieving equitable and high-quality education outcomes:

• Goal: Bridge the learning gap to improve foundational skills.
• Key Areas: Teacher quality, selection, training, incentives, and policy implementation.

The urgency is underscored by the COVID-19 pandemic’s widening learning inequalities and the need to address them for long-term economic growth and prosperity.

The Learning Deficit in Middle-Income East Asia and Pacific

• Basic Literacy and Numeracy Deficit:

  • Learned Poverty: In most middle-income countries, over 50% of 10-year-olds cannot read fluently (learning poverty rates sometimes exceed 50%). Malaysia has the highest rate (~42%), while Vietnam is the best performer (~18%).
  • Inequalities: Disparities are higher in poorer regions and among disadvantaged socioeconomic groups.1

• Barriers to Teacher Quality:

  • Shortages in Selection: Many countries recruit teachers based on political connections rather than merit, limiting quality (South East Asia and Pacific performing poorly in political patronage).

• Lack of Data and Diagnostic Tools:

  • Many countries lack reliable metrics on teacher capacity (e.g., content knowledge, teaching practices), making it hard to target reforms.

Essential Actions to Improve Teacher Quality

1. Three-Pronged Approach to Teachers

2. Effective Training Programs

• Four C’s of Training Programs:

  • Focus on subject content, practice with colleagues, ongoing support, and career incentives (e.g., Vietnam, Indonesia).2

• Impact of EdTech:

  • Computer-assisted learning (CAL) improves literacy skills (0.1–0.7 standard deviations) in middle-income countries when used as a supplement (e.g., Tonga, Vietnam) (4,36 pages).
  • Remote instruction (dual teacher model) can extend access to quality teaching (China, Vietnam, Brazil) (4,81 pages).

Funding and Efficiency Challenges

1. Public Education Spending

• Underfunding in East Asia:

  • Most countries’ public spending (on teacher salaries, tools, training) is below recommended levels (e.g., Malaysia’s 4.2%, Indonesia’s 2.8%). The average for middle-income peers is around 4–6% of GDP.3
  • Vietnam is an exception, with high returns on investment in teacher training (1,072 pages).

• Inefficient Spending:

  • Causes vary by country (e.g., bureaucracy, politicization, implementation gaps).
  • Transparent allocation systems are rare, and reforms are slow to address patronage-driven hiring (e.g., Indonesia, Philippines) (7,020 pages).

2. Private Education Investments

• Most private spending in East Asia focuses on tutoring and advanced education, widening inequality (e.g., wealthy households subsidize schools in Vanuatu, Lao PDR) (5,88 pages).

Political Economy Challenges in Education Reform

• Patronage and Union Influence:
  • Teachers’ unions have limited influence in East Asia-Pacific, but patronage networks (e.g., politicians awarding jobs) persist.2
  • In Indonesia, Mongolia, and Vietnam,

 (இ)  the underlying causes of inefficiencies in public education spending differ widely across East Asian and Pacific countries, 2.  the pandemic may have exacerbated learning disparities,3.  teacher salaries are often insufficient to attract qualified candidates. 

- **Defining Evidence-Based Interventions:**  
  Recommendation✔ Implement pilot programs✔ Define metrics for transition to vocational education✔ Strategy for partner cities expansion. 

- **Common Challenges:**  
  - Long-term sustainability✔ Team cohesion✔ Integration of displaced SMEs✔ KhonKaen site for continued operations.”

- **Political Resistance and Success Stories:**  
  - Bribery remains widespread in education management and procurement (9–10). Examples of effective reforms come from Indonesia, Nigeria, Singapore, and other regions (A2, B2). 

- **Future Steps:**  
  - Focus on cost-sharing mechanisms between public and private actors🔊 Enhance data platforms to track interventions🔊 Scale up teacher networks📢 Improve assessment tools.

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## Conclusion

“This report identifies the win as strengthening teacher performance and foundational learning outcomes as crucial for middle-income nations to achieve shared development goals, including economic resilience amid global challenges like COVID-19. Success here is fundamental to unlocking human potential and transforming education systems.”

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