2015年-世界发展银行全球_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina___Gender_Disparities_in_Endowments_Access_to_Economic_Opportunities_and_Agency_91页_3mb

Bosnia and Herzegovina: Gender Disparities in Endowments, Access to Economic Opportunities and Agency

Core Content

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of gender disparities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) across three key areas: endowments (education, health, and physical assets), economic opportunities (labor market participation, employment, and entrepreneurship), and agency (political participation, gender-based violence, and legal framework). It is based on data from various international and national surveys, including the World Bank's World Development Indicators, the European Values Survey (EVS), and the Life in Transition Survey (LiTS).

Main Findings

1. Agency

• Legal and Institutional Framework: BiH's constitution and legal system treat men and women equally in most respects, but inconsistencies in law harmonization, implementation, and monitoring allow for gender-based discrimination.
• Political Participation: Women hold few decision-making positions at all levels, often confined to "feminine ministries." There is limited political representation and participation, with traditional views of women's roles in society affecting their ability to hold higher positions.
• Gender-Based Violence: Domestic violence is widespread, with over half of BiH women experiencing at least one form of violence in their lifetime, most commonly psychological, followed by physical and sexual violence. Violence is often inflicted by a partner and is more prevalent among younger, poorer, rural, and Roma women.
• Life Satisfaction: Women report lower life satisfaction than men, particularly among older women, likely due to historical issues with health services and gender-based discrimination.

2. Endowments

• Education: The gender gap in education has decreased, especially among the younger generation. Primary school attendance rates are nearly equal, but secondary and higher education show a male advantage. Women and girls from the Roma community have particularly low educational attainment.
• Field of Education: Traditional gender roles influence educational choices, with men more likely to pursue engineering and construction, while women tend toward education, social sciences, health, law, and services.
• Health: Health indicators have improved significantly since the 2000s, with life expectancy increasing and maternal mortality decreasing. However, access to reproductive health services is still limited, contributing to higher adolescent fertility rates and high abortion rates. Women tend to self-assess their health as lower than men, particularly older women.
• Access to Finance: Women have less access to credit and financial assets than men, often due to lack of collateral and traditional gender norms favoring male ownership. Financial inclusion in BiH lags behind other ECA countries, with fewer women holding formal financial accounts.

3. Economic Opportunities

• Labor Participation: Women's labor participation is significantly lower than expected for their level of development, with the gap being larger than in other ECA countries. The gap decreases with higher education levels and reverses at the secondary school level.
• Unemployment: Despite no large gender gap in unemployment across the country, women with higher education experience longer unemployment periods. The gap is most pronounced among the poorest women with limited educational attainment.
• Employment: Women's employment rates increase with higher education levels, but they face more challenges in accessing higher decision-making positions. There are also issues with inconsistent maternity leave policies and lack of effective redress mechanisms for workplace discrimination.
• Female Entrepreneurship: Female entrepreneurship is underdeveloped due to a preference for secure public sector jobs, risk aversion, and lack of support services such as childcare and benefits for self-employed women. The economic downturn has further exacerbated these challenges by tightening credit access.

Key Information

• Poverty and Gender: There is an equal distribution of poverty between men and women, with women slightly overrepresented in the poorest 40% of the population.
• Refugee Status: Women are slightly more likely to be refugees than men, with the highest incidence among the top 60% of the population and the lowest among the bottom 40%.
• Household Headship: Female-headed households are more common among affluent groups, with 16.4% of non-poor households and 17.8% of top 60% households being female-headed. This drops to 13.5% among poor households and 13.2% among the lowest 40%.
• Economic Impact of Gender Gaps: BiH forgoes approximately 16% of its GNI due to gender disparities in labor force participation. Improving women's access to economic opportunities can enhance income generation and reduce poverty.

Policy Recommendations

• Focus on Economic Opportunities: Prioritize improving women's access to labor markets, credit, and entrepreneurship support.
• Address Barriers to Work: Implement policies that reduce gender-based discrimination, provide flexible working arrangements, and improve access to childcare.
• Strengthen Legal and Institutional Frameworks: Ensure consistent implementation and monitoring of gender equality laws, and improve mechanisms for reporting and addressing discrimination.
• Combat Gender-Based Violence: Enhance awareness and support systems for victims of domestic violence and human trafficking.
• Support Roma Women: Address the specific challenges faced by Roma women in education and economic participation.
• Promote Political Participation: Encourage women's involvement in political decision-making and support their development of gender-sensitive policies.

Conclusion

While BiH has made progress in closing the gender gap in education, significant disparities remain in economic opportunities and agency. Women face persistent challenges in accessing financial resources, employment, and political roles, which are compounded by traditional social norms and institutional inconsistencies. Addressing these issues is essential for improving economic growth, reducing poverty, and enhancing the overall well-being of women and their households in BiH.