世界银行-前沿的土耳其：人力资本利用、就业与公平-技术诊断（英）-166页_5mb

Summary of TÜRKIYE AT THE FRONTIER: Human Capital Utilization, Jobs and Equity

Core Content

This document provides a comprehensive analysis of human capital utilization and job creation in Türkiye, with a focus on gender equity. It evaluates the country's progress and challenges in creating inclusive labor markets, enhancing financial resilience, and improving social capital. The study is part of the World Bank's broader efforts to support Türkiye's economic development through knowledge-sharing and policy diagnostics.

Main Objectives

• Assess human capital utilization in terms of inclusive jobs and gender equity.
• Identify key achievements and frontier challenges.
• Propose an integrated framework for equitable human capital and jobs development.
• Provide insights for future policy and program design.

Key Findings

1. Human Capital Utilization and Gender Equity

• Türkiye has made significant progress in human capital utilization over the past 15 years across 18 out of 22 dimensions.
• Women's labor force participation increased from 37% in 1990 to nearly 35% in 2020–2022, though it still lags behind men by a factor of at least 2:1.
• Vulnerable employment remains high, especially among women, with over 30% of women in vulnerable jobs.
• Women are more likely to be in informal or temporary employment, particularly in sectors like hospitality, food, retail, and domestic services.
• The share of women in agriculture has declined, while their presence in the service sector has increased.

2. Education and Skills Development

• Secondary and vocational education enrollment among women has improved, though disparities remain.
• Women's educational attainment is on par with men in terms of basic learning outcomes, but gaps persist in advanced skills and competencies.
• Education plays a crucial role in reducing labor market vulnerability and improving job quality.

3. Financial Inclusion and Labor Market Outcomes

• Financial inclusion in Türkiye is improving, but gender gaps remain larger than in other upper and high middle-income countries.
• Access to financial services, credit, and entrepreneurship is key to enhancing labor market outcomes.
• There is a strong correlation between financial account ownership and wage employment among women.

4. Social Capital and Household Roles

• Women's household roles are more pronounced in Türkiye, but are gradually lessening as access to opportunities and early childhood education (ECD/E) enrollment increase.
• Social expenditures and labor force participation are closely linked, with more support needed for vulnerable populations.
• Improving access to early childhood education and care services is essential for long-term support of women's labor participation.

5. Challenges and Recommendations

• Short-term focus: Improve the quality of existing jobs through targeted benefits, maternity/paternity support, wage competitiveness, and labor market flexibility.
• Long-term focus: Expand competitiveness and job creation in green and digital sectors, and strengthen advanced skills among intermediate-skilled women.
• Policy Recommendations:
  • Adopt an integrated, holistic approach to labor market reforms.
  • Enhance financial services inclusion and entrepreneurship opportunities.
  • Improve access to early childhood education and support services for vulnerable groups.
  • Address gender-specific labor regulations and occupational segregation.

Key Tables and Figures

Tables

• Table ES-1: Highlights key achievements and frontier challenges in gender-inclusive human capital and jobs.
• Table 1: Global benchmarking of selected proxy indicators for holistic gender-inclusive human capital utilization.
• Table 2: Vocational and technical secondary enrollment rates in Türkiye and selected countries (2005 vs 2017).
• Table 4: Employment rates by regional zone and gender (2010 vs 2022).
• Table 5: Most vulnerable sectors by gender.
• Table 7: Selected indicators from the World Bank Women Business and the Law report for Türkiye (2000 vs 2023).
• Table 11: Ten achievements and frontier challenges for gender-inclusive human capital and jobs.
• Table 12: Integrated human capital and jobs framework: ten measures for overall and gender equity.
• Table 13: Summary of internationally financed jobs projects by target and type in Türkiye.

Figures

• Figure 1: Conceptual framework for multidimensional human capital utilization.
• Figure 4: Labor force participation rates by gender in Türkiye and globally (2020–2021).
• Figure 10: Share of youth neither in employment nor education (NEET) by gender over time.
• Figure 31: Employment rates by regional zone among women (2022).
• Figure 45: Average annual wages among full-time employees in OECD countries (2018–2022).
• Figure 47–50: Determinants of labor income by employment type (formal and informal wage and self-employment).
• Figure 53: Distribution of internationally-financed jobs projects by target group and type in Türkiye (2015–2024).
• Figure 56: Mapping of sectoral job vacancies, unfilled rates, and female placement (2020).
• Figure 67–69: Women's representation in employment and management positions by regional zone.
• Figure 73: Time spent on paid and unpaid work by gender in Türkiye and OECD.
• Figure 75: Nursery rates among children by region over time (2006 and 2016).
• Figure 81: Stylized typology of human capital utilization across occupational profiles in Türkiye.

Main Themes

• Gender Equity: A central theme throughout the document, emphasizing the need for policies that address the unique challenges women face in labor markets.
• Inclusive Jobs: The document advocates for creating more inclusive and equitable job opportunities, especially for vulnerable groups.
• Multi-dimensional Approach: The analysis suggests a need for integrated policies that address labor, financial, and social capital simultaneously.
• Global Benchmarking: Türkiye's performance is compared with global trends and other countries to identify areas of progress and gaps.

Conclusion

The document underscores the importance of a holistic and integrated approach to human capital and jobs development in Türkiye, with a strong emphasis on gender equity. It identifies both achievements and ongoing challenges, offering a framework for future policy and program design to enhance economic resilience and inclusivity. The findings are based on historical trends, global benchmarking, and national data, providing a valuable reference for policymakers and stakeholders.