2001年-世界发展银行全球_Syria___Irrigation_Sector_Report_127页_7mb

Syrian Arab Republic Irrigation Sector Report Summary

Core Content

This report, prepared by the World Bank's Rural Development, Water, and Environment Group, provides an analysis of the irrigation sector in Syria, including its current status, challenges, and potential areas for improvement and support. The report was based on a mission conducted in May 2000 and incorporates data and insights from existing documentation and stakeholder consultations.

Main Points

Water Supply, Use, and Balance

• Total estimated water use in Syria is about 15 billion m³ per year.
• The Euphrates and Orontes basins account for about 50% and 20% of water use, respectively.
• Agriculture is the largest consumer of water, accounting for over 85% of total use.
• Urban and industrial water demand is expected to increase significantly, with domestic water demand projected to rise by nearly 30% in ten years.
• Water deficits are expected to worsen, especially in basins with large urban areas like Damascus and Aleppo, leading to increased stress on water availability for all sectors.
• Drinking water is given top priority, which may limit agricultural water availability.

Water Quality and Pollution Control

• Surface and groundwater contamination is a growing concern due to the direct discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater into rivers, canals, and other water bodies.
• Until recently, Syria had very few domestic wastewater treatment facilities, leading to the use of untreated wastewater for irrigation and potentially for drinking purposes.
• This has resulted in the spread of waterborne diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, and diarrhea.
• Groundwater pollution is a serious issue in areas like Ghouta (Damascus suburbs) and South Aleppo.
• There is no systematic monitoring of groundwater quality, but several studies indicate widespread pollution.
• The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) confirms that pollution occurs across the country, near all major settlements.
• Ecosystems of many rivers and streams are deteriorating, with some showing irreversible damage.

Irrigated Agriculture

• Agriculture contributes about 30% to Syria's GDP and employs nearly 25% of the workforce, with another 50% of the manufacturing workforce depending on it.
• Irrigated agriculture has a strong impact on poverty alleviation and income distribution.
• In 1998, about 20% of Syria's cultivated land (1.2 million hectares) was irrigated.
• Wheat is the most significant crop in terms of irrigated area, accounting for 51% of total irrigated land, followed by cotton (20%), fruits and vegetables (16%), sugarbeet (7%), and maize (5%).
• Cotton accounts for the largest share of irrigation water use (32%), followed by wheat (27%), fruits (17%), and other crops and vegetables (24%).
• The cost of water accounts for about 15% of the total cost of cultivating cotton, which is estimated at about 4 billion S.P.

Irrigation Development

• The total irrigated area in Syria increased from 650,000 hectares in 1985 to 1.2 million hectares in 1998.
• Groundwater irrigation has been the main driver of this expansion, with 60% of irrigated areas currently using groundwater.
• Approximately 50% of the total number of wells are illegal, contributing to overdraft and pollution.
• Most irrigation canals have a conveyance efficiency of only 50-60%, and on-farm water use efficiency is low at 40-60%.
• Cropping intensities are low, averaging around 112%.

Modern Irrigation Technologies

• The government encourages the use of advanced on-farm irrigation technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
• Tax-free low-interest loans are provided through the Cooperative Agricultural Bank (CAB) to support these technologies.
• However, the adoption rate of these technologies remains low, with sprinkler irrigation covering about 80,000 hectares and drip irrigation about 8,500 hectares.
• Key constraints to adoption include limited financial capacity of small farmers, lack of awareness and extension services, inadequate interface between public and advanced irrigation systems, and small field sizes.

Policy Issues

• The government's policy of encouraging wheat and cotton production has led to rapid expansion of irrigated agriculture.
• This has, however, resulted in unsustainable water use patterns and over-extraction from key water basins.
• Current irrigation tariff policies do not provide incentives for farmers to adopt modern irrigation systems.
• The flat-rate tariff per hectare is simple but does not reflect actual costs or encourage efficiency.
• The report recommends exploring alternative tariff structures, including volumetric pricing and two-part tariffs, to promote water conservation and cost recovery.

Financial Aspects: O&M and Cost Recovery

• O&M costs for irrigation and drainage schemes (excluding dams) are recovered from farmers through service charges.
• Capital costs for new projects and rehabilitation are recovered over 30 years without interest.
• On average, about 40% of capital costs are recovered, which is relatively high compared to other developing countries.
• O&M fees are collected by the Central Bank, and there are no penalties for non-payment, but surcharges apply for late fees.
• The O&M fee collection rates have exceeded projections, likely due to errors in user lists and inefficiencies in billing and collection processes.
• There is no direct link between collected O&M fees and the actual budget for O&M activities, leading to a lack of perceived connection between payments and service quality.

Key Recommendations

• Improve Water Use Efficiency: Implement modern irrigation technologies and enhance extension services to support their adoption.
• Strengthen Groundwater Management: Enforce well licensing, consolidate wells in critical areas, and improve monitoring and regulation.
• Enhance Water Quality Monitoring: Develop a systematic framework for monitoring both surface and groundwater quality to address pollution.
• Promote Sustainable Cropping Patterns: Shift towards high-value, less water-intensive crops and align crop prices with international market rates.
• Reform Irrigation Tariff Structures: Explore volumetric pricing and two-part tariffs to encourage water conservation and ensure cost recovery.
• Strengthen Institutional Framework: Improve coordination between ministries and agencies, and enhance the capacity of Water Users Associations (WUA) to manage water resources effectively.
• Implement Demand Management Strategies: Adopt measures that reduce water wastage and promote efficient use through both pricing and non-price mechanisms.

Conclusion

The report highlights the urgent need for reforms in Syria's irrigation sector to address water scarcity, pollution, and inefficient use. It emphasizes the importance of integrating modern technologies, improving institutional capacity, and aligning agricultural policies with sustainable water management practices. The World Bank and other donors are encouraged to support these initiatives, particularly through funding and technical assistance.