2006年-世界发展银行全球_Social_Safety_Nets_in_OECD_Countries_8页_440kb

Summary of Social Safety Nets in OECD Countries

Core Content

This document provides an overview of social safety net (SSN) programs in OECD countries, focusing on non-contributory social programs for low-income and vulnerable groups. It outlines the differences in SSN systems between Anglo-Saxon and continental European models, the types of social transfers available, and the factors influencing SSN reforms.

Level of SP and SSN Spending

OECD countries redistribute a significant portion of their GDP through social protection (SP) programs. On average, 85% of this spending is allocated to social insurance programs (pensions, unemployment, health insurance), while 15% is directed towards non-contributory social assistance programs. The share of social assistance varies across countries:

• EU-15: Social assistance spending averages 3% of GDP.
• US: Means-tested welfare programs account for 2.2% of GDP, and when including Medicaid, the total reaches 4.4% of GDP.

Table 1 highlights the breakdown of SP spending across various categories for different OECD countries. For example:

• Australia: 10.1% of GDP
• Austria: 19.1% of GDP
• US: 8.0% of GDP

The Architecture of SSN Systems

There are two primary models of SSN systems in OECD countries:

1. Anglo-Saxon Model: Found in the US, UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. These countries rely less on social insurance and more on targeted support for the poor.
2. Residual SSN Model: Found in continental Europe. These systems emphasize universal and generous family benefits, with means-tested programs serving as a safety net for the most vulnerable.

Despite the differences in spending levels, continental Europe generally has higher coverage and redistribution through social protection, leading to greater poverty reduction compared to the Anglo-Saxon model.

Factors Explaining Divergent Paths

Alesina and Glaeser (2004) identify several factors that explain the differences in SSN spending between the US and EU:

• Political institutions: Including federalism, type of representation, and checks and balances.
• Racial fragmentation.
• Beliefs about poverty: Whether it is viewed as due to laziness or lack of opportunity.

These factors are more influential than economic variables such as pre-tax inequality or social mobility.

Types of Programs

OECD countries operate various non-contributory social transfer programs, including:

• Minimum Income Programs (Guaranteed Minimum Income - GMI)
• Housing Benefits
• Family Benefits (universal or means-tested)
• Lone-parent Benefits
• Employment Conditional Benefits (tax credits, reduced social contributions, or cash bonuses)
• Childcare Benefits (direct cash, tax breaks, or subsidies)

Table 2 provides an overview of which countries offer these programs. For example:

• Australia offers all types of social transfers.
• United States does not offer GMI but has childcare benefits and other support programs.

Key Design Features of GMI Programs

GMI programs vary significantly in design, including:

• Benefit levels (expressed as a percentage of the average productive wage - APW)
• Income threshold determination (national, regional, or under national guidelines)
• Means test features (income disregards, benefit withdrawal rates, and benefits excluded)

Table 3 outlines these features across countries. For instance:

• Denmark offers the highest GMI benefit at 31% of APW.
• United States has a relatively low GMI benefit at 5% of APW.
• Threshold determination varies, with some countries using national and others regional standards.

Factors Triggering SSN Reform

Several key factors have driven SSN reforms in OECD countries:

1. Increasing long-term unemployment due to labor market changes and globalization, leading to greater reliance on social assistance.
2. Population aging, which increases the demand for social assistance for the elderly.
3. Changing family structures, especially the rise of single-parent and single-youth households, increasing the need for childcare support and incentives for family formation.
4. Fiscal and administrative tensions between central and local governments, with wealthier regions often bearing the burden of funding social protection in poorer areas.

These factors are not exclusive to OECD countries and are increasingly affecting middle-income and low-income countries as well.

Policy Issues on the SSN Agenda

Key policy issues in OECD countries include:

• Work incentives: Concerns about welfare traps and disincentives to work.
• Social exclusion: A broader concept than poverty, focusing on deprivation in multiple dimensions.

Work Incentives

Debates on work incentives have centered around:

• Duration of benefits: Many countries have introduced time limits for social assistance, particularly for the young.
• Conditions for forfeiting benefits: Some allow part-time work without losing benefits, while others do not.
• Job search requirements: Vary from minimal requirements to strict tests of active job seeking.
• Benefit levels: Some countries provide low cash benefits, while others offer more generous support.
• Tax structures: High effective marginal tax rates may discourage re-entry into the labor market.
• Differences between social insurance and social assistance: Some countries clearly differentiate the two, while others offer only social assistance.

Policy Responses to Work Incentives

OECD countries have responded to concerns about work incentives through various reforms:

• Positive work supports:

  • Extending part-time work options.
  • Delivering benefits to individuals rather than households.
  • Offering employment conditional benefits (tax credits, wage supplements, etc.).

• Negative work supports:

  • Reducing benefit amounts.
  • Limiting the duration of benefits.
  • Implementing stricter job search requirements.

Social Exclusion

Social exclusion is increasingly emphasized in policy reform, particularly in continental Europe. It is defined as a multi-dimensional deprivation beyond just income poverty, encompassing access to services, social integration, and opportunity. This concept has led to a focus on inclusive policies that aim to reduce exclusion and improve the quality of life for vulnerable groups.

Conclusion

The document highlights the diversity of SSN systems across OECD countries, shaped by historical, cultural, and political factors. It also underscores the complexity of reform and the trade-offs between work incentives and social inclusion, emphasizing the importance of context-specific approaches to designing effective social safety nets.