2014年-世界发展银行全球_Indonesias_Higher_Education_System___How_Responsive_is_it_to_the_Labor_Market__40页_1mb

报告摘要

Summary of Indonesia's Higher Education System: How Responsive is it to the Labor Market?

Core Content

This report analyzes the responsiveness of Indonesia's higher education system to the labor market, focusing on the alignment between the skills provided by higher education institutions (HEIs) and the needs of the workforce. It highlights the challenges in ensuring that graduates are equipped with the right skills to meet current and future labor market demands, despite significant expansion and increased investment in education.

Main Competences of Diploma Programs

Diploma Program	Period of Study	Main Competences
D1	1 year	Execute specific tasks and solve routine problems under guidance
D2	2 years	D1 competence + ability to work independently
D3	3 years	D1 + D2 + ability to solve unfamiliar problems and supervise in a specific technical area
D4	4 years	D1 + D2 + D3 + ability to apply skills in a complex area and follow science and technology developments

Source: Summarized from National Education Standard Agency, BSNP (2011)

Key Features of the Indonesian Higher Education System

Three Education Tracks: Formal, non-formal, and informal education span from early childhood to tertiary levels.
Compulsory Education Expansion: Indonesia has moved from 9 to 12 years of compulsory education, starting in 2013.
Academic vs. Vocational Streams: The choice between academic (S1) and vocational (Diploma) streams begins at senior secondary level (SMA/MA and SMK/MAK).
HEI Types: There are five types of HEIs: universities, institutes, schools of higher learning, polytechnics, and academies. A sixth type, community colleges, was introduced by Law 12/2012.
Accreditation System: The National Accreditation Board (BAN-PT) accredits study programs at levels A, B, and C. Most programs are at B and C levels, with only 10% at A level.
Public vs. Private HEIs: Public HEIs dominate the system, with 84.4% of all HEIs under the Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC), while private HEIs are more numerous but have fewer students.
Student Distribution: Over 95% of study programs are located on Java and Bali, with a smaller share in Sumatra and Sulawesi.
Financial Support: Public HEIs receive substantial government subsidies, while private HEIs rely on tuition fees and limited state support.

Labor Market Performance of Graduates

Employment Trends: Most higher education graduates enter the services sector, particularly public services such as education and health.
Teacher Training Dominance: Teacher training colleges account for almost 1/3 of all higher education graduates, driven by the Teacher Law of 2005 and its associated financial incentives.
Unemployment Rates: Higher education graduates face high unemployment rates, especially until the age of 35.
Wage Returns: Graduates with Diploma 1 (D1) and Diploma 2 (D2) degrees receive only about 10% higher wages than senior secondary graduates, compared to 100% for those with D3 and above.
Skill Mismatches: There is a mismatch between the supply of graduates and the demand for skilled workers in professional and managerial positions. The labor market is increasingly constrained in these areas.

Employer Perspectives and System Misalignment

Employer Concerns: In a 2008 World Bank survey, 2/3 of employers found it difficult to find qualified workers for professional and managerial roles.
Supply Constraints: The system is supply-constrained, particularly in technical and professional fields, despite a growing number of graduates.
Sectoral Demand: The demand for admission to teacher training colleges is increasing, yet these graduates often face poor working conditions and lower salaries compared to regular civil servants.
Employment by Sector: Graduates are predominantly employed in the public sector, while private and industrial sectors face significant skill shortages.

Policy and Institutional Framework

Institutional Response to Labor Market Demands: HEIs do not naturally respond to labor market demands due to the indirect influence of regulatory frameworks and governance incentives.
Information Gaps: There is a lack of comprehensive information on labor market trends and HEI quality for students and employers.
Accreditation Challenges: The accreditation system is underdeveloped, with insufficient funding, expertise, and tools. Most D2 programs are expired, and accreditation levels do not fully reflect program quality.
Need for Integration: The current databases on HEIs are fragmented, making it difficult for students and employers to access complete and accurate information.

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

Policy Focus: The report emphasizes the need for a more integrated system that aligns HEI offerings with labor market needs.
Reforms Needed: Improvements in information dissemination, quality assurance, and incentives for HEIs to respond to market demands are crucial.
Future Research: Further studies are needed to understand the full range of skills (technical, cognitive, behavioral) required in the labor market and how HEIs can better prepare graduates.

Key Findings

High Enrollment in Teacher Training: Teacher training programs are highly popular, but graduates often face underemployment and poor working conditions.
Low Returns for Lower Diploma Programs: Graduates from D1 and D2 programs have lower wage returns compared to those from D3 and above.
Accreditation Inconsistencies: Accreditation levels are not well communicated or understood, leading to potential misalignment between HEI quality and labor market expectations.
Regional Imbalances: Study programs are concentrated in Java and Bali, with limited presence in other islands, potentially exacerbating regional disparities.
System Complexity: The system is complex and diverse, with a need for better coordination between HEIs, employers, and policymakers to ensure relevance and responsiveness to labor market needs.

Figures and Tables Mentioned

Figure 1: A framework of accountability of higher education institutions.
Figure 2: A picture of the education system in Indonesia.
Figure 3: Number of institutions and students by type and public/private status, 2010.
Figure 4: Number of study programs by island group, 2010.
Figure 5: Accreditation levels and the status of various degree programs in Indonesia.
Figure 6: Number of students by area of study and applicants/entrants ratio.
Figure 7: Share of higher education enrollment by study program.
Figure 8: Enrollment rates in higher education.
Figure 9: Number of students by household per capita consumption quintile, 2012.
Figure 10: Share of enrollment in public and private institutions by consumption quintile and by Diploma programs, 2009.
Figure 11: Labor force by level of education, 2001–2010.
Figure 12: Unemployment rate by type of education and age, 2007–2013.
Figure 13: Share of workers employed for wages by level of education, 2001–2010.
Figure 14: Number of higher education workers by job function.
Figure 15: Age distribution of higher education graduates in the labor force, 2010.
Figure 16: Trends in returns to education, all labor force and those younger than 35, 2001–2010.
Figure 17: Labor force and returns to education by urban/rural location, 2001–2010.
Figure 18: Labor force with higher education by island group, 2001–2010.
Figure 19: Number of higher education graduates employed by sector, 2001–2010.
Figure 20: Returns to tertiary education in the public service sector.
Figure 21: Average wage of tertiary graduates working in the education system by age, 2010.
Figure 22: Enrollment growth in education and non-education higher education programs, 2005–2010.
Figure 23: A supply-constrained labor market.
Figure 24: Returns to education by type of degree, 2001–2010.
Figure 25: Share of the growth in graduates by sector of employment, 2001–2010.
Figure 26: Returns to education by sector of employment, all labor force, 2001–2010.
Figure 27: Difficulty in filling positions by level of skill required, 2008.
Figure 28: Severity of skill constraints in East Asia, 2008–2011.
Figure 29: Reasons for shortages by sector, according to employers, 2008.