2014年-世界发展银行全球_Drivers_of_Crime_and_Violence_in_Papua_New_Guinea_28页_1mb

Summary of Drivers of Crime and Violence in Papua New Guinea

I. Introduction

This paper explores the drivers and stressors of crime and violence in Papua New Guinea (PNG), emphasizing the need to understand the cultural basis of conflict. It notes that crime and violence are widespread and pose significant obstacles to development. Traditional conflict resolution mechanisms, such as talking, fighting, and compensation, have historically played a key role in maintaining social cohesion and order. However, these systems are increasingly challenged by modern social, economic, and political changes, making conflict more complex and less amenable to traditional management. The paper concludes with a summary of findings and gaps in understanding.

II. Traditional Conflict Management Mechanisms

In PNG, conflict is seen as a natural and socially acceptable part of life, not inherently negative. Traditional mechanisms for conflict resolution include:

• Talking and fighting: Disputes are often resolved through verbal negotiation or physical confrontation, especially in rural areas.
• Compensation: This is a central aspect of conflict management, used to restore balance and affirm social relationships. Compensation can be in the form of pigs or cash, and it plays a role in wealth redistribution and demonstrating group status.
• Customary justice: Conflict is managed through community-based systems, often involving headmen or local leaders, rather than formal legal institutions.

These mechanisms are deeply embedded in PNG's cultural fabric and continue to influence how conflict is perceived and managed, even in urban areas.

III. Internal and External Stresses

3.1 Youth and Intergenerational Tensions

• A large youth population, especially in urban areas, contributes to crime and violence.
• High youth unemployment and lack of educational and recreational opportunities are linked to increased crime.
• Changes in social norms have created a generational gap, with younger people lacking traditional social structures that guide behavior.
• Young migrants to resource-rich areas often fall outside clan-based social order, increasing the likelihood of conflict.
• Some youth groups, such as "raskols," are involved in collective crime, though there is limited evidence on their structure and functioning.

3.2 Poverty, High Cost of Living, and Lack of Economic Opportunities

• Poverty and lack of economic opportunities are major drivers of crime and violence.
• The economy has shifted from agriculture to a resource-based one, but benefits are not evenly distributed.
• High unemployment and inflationary pressures on land and housing contribute to tensions.
• The lack of affordable housing and limited employment opportunities in urban areas exacerbates social instability.
• The informal and under-resourced nature of the justice system and law enforcement reduces their effectiveness in addressing these issues.

3.3 Family and Sexual Violence and Gender-Based Violence

• Family and sexual violence (FSV) and gender-based violence (GBV) are widespread in PNG.
• In the domestic sphere, a significant proportion of women report being beaten by their husbands.
• In the public sphere, women are at risk of sexual assault, accusations of sorcery, robbery, and intimidation.
• Cultural norms that view women as the property of men and practices like bride-price and bride exchange contribute to the persistence of GBV.
• Social and economic changes, including urbanization and migration, also increase the vulnerability of women to abuse.
• There is limited analysis on how these changes affect gender relations and the prevalence of GBV.

3.4 Inter-Ethnic Tensions

• Inter-ethnic tensions are a major driver of violent conflict in PNG.
• These tensions are more pronounced in rural areas, where cultural norms encourage the use of violence in disputes.
• Urban areas also experience ethnic conflict, particularly in settlements, with some violence "transferred" from rural to urban settings via migration and wantoks.
• The availability of firearms in ethnic conflicts increases the scale and severity of violence, leading to prolonged cycles of retribution.

3.5 Decentralization and Violence

• Decentralization has not necessarily reduced violence but has introduced new dynamics in conflict management.
• Local leaders and political actors play a significant role in conflict escalation and resolution.
• Weak accountability mechanisms between citizens and the formal state contribute to the persistence of violence.

3.6 Availability of Firearms

• The growing availability and use of firearms have significantly increased the intensity and frequency of violent conflicts.
• Traditional conflict resolution methods are less effective in the presence of firearms, leading to more lethal outcomes.
• Firearms are often used in both clan-based and inter-ethnic conflicts, making them a key stressor in the current violence landscape.

3.7 Misuse of Alcohol, Marijuana, and Other Drugs

• Substance misuse, particularly alcohol, is a significant trigger for violence in PNG.
• It is associated with increased aggression, impaired judgment, and the breakdown of social norms.
• The link between substance abuse and crime is well-documented, especially in urban areas where the availability of drugs is higher.

IV. Institutional Factors

• Traditional systems of conflict resolution are still relevant but are increasingly strained by modern stresses.
• Formal justice institutions are often seen as culturally irrelevant or ineffective.
• The presence of external actors, such as courts and mediators, may not align with local conflict norms, reducing their impact.
• The lack of cultural relevance and confidence in formal systems means that they are not effective in deterring violence or managing cycles of retribution.

V. Summary of Findings and Gaps in Understanding

• Key Drivers: Poverty, unemployment, inter-ethnic tensions, availability of firearms, and substance misuse are major contributors to crime and violence in PNG.
• Cultural Context: Conflict and violence are deeply rooted in PNG's cultural norms and practices.
• Institutional Challenges: The formal justice system is under-resourced and culturally disconnected, limiting its effectiveness.
• Gaps: There is limited understanding of how changing economic and social conditions affect gender relations and the structure of raskol gangs. Additionally, the role of external actors in conflict management remains underexplored.

VI. Conclusion

The paper underscores the importance of understanding the cultural and social dynamics that underpin crime and violence in PNG. It suggests that effective strategies must be culturally sensitive and address the root causes of conflict, including economic inequality, social dislocation, and the erosion of traditional social structures. The role of institutions in managing these conflicts remains a critical area for reform and investment.