2009年-世界发展银行全球_Ghana_-_Job_Creation_and_Skills_Development___Background_Papers_131页_1mb

报告摘要

Summary of Ghana Job Creation and Skills Development (Volume II: Background Papers)

Core Content

This document is a compilation of background papers aimed at analyzing the relationship between education, skills development, and labor market outcomes in Ghana. It provides an in-depth look at the role of formal and informal education systems, the impact of various types of education and training on employment and earnings, and the effectiveness of policy initiatives like the National Youth Employment Program (NYEP). The report is part of the World Bank's efforts to support Ghana's development strategy, particularly in enhancing competitiveness through improved labor market outcomes.

Main Views

1. Education and Employment Relationship

Education significantly influences employment type and earnings.
Formal education, especially secondary and tertiary levels, has a stronger impact on employment and earnings than primary education.
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and apprenticeships are important in preparing workers for wage and self-employment, though their impact is less clear compared to formal education.
Completing junior secondary education is a key threshold for improving employment quality and earnings.

2. Data and Methodology

The analysis is based on three rounds of the Ghana Living Standards Surveys (GLSS): 1991/92, 1998/99, and 2005/06.
A two-step methodology is used to estimate the returns to education:
- First step: Multinomial logit model to determine employment type.
- Second step: Wage regression model, incorporating sample selection corrections via the Durbin-McFadden (1984) procedure.
An alternative OLS regression is also used to assess the impact of education on earnings without considering sample selection bias.
The analysis is limited to individuals aged 25 to 64, as data on younger workers is unreliable due to survey design constraints.

3. Impact of Education and Training

Formal education has a more substantial and positive impact on earnings and employment type than TVET or apprenticeships.
Apprenticeships are common in Ghana, with 55% of working individuals having either current or past experience as apprentices, compared to only 17% with formal vocational training.
On-the-job training is also a significant source of skill acquisition, with 25% of workers having acquired skills through such means.
Education level is a strong determinant of earnings, with each additional year of schooling increasing wages by approximately 8.5%.

4. Labor Market Outcomes

There is a notable wage gap between formal and informal sectors, with wage workers earning more than self-employed individuals.
Self-employed in non-farm activities earn more than those in agriculture.
The returns to education vary across sectors, with higher returns in non-agricultural and formal sectors.

5. Policy and Program Analysis

The National Youth Employment Program (NYEP) is a key initiative aimed at reducing youth unemployment and poverty.
The NYEP's potential impact on poverty reduction is analyzed, with findings suggesting that targeting youth with junior secondary education and high wages could be more effective.
There are leakage effects in the NYEP, where not all eligible youth receive benefits, especially in rural areas.
The National Vocational Training Institute (NTVI) and Integrated Community Centers for Employable Skills (ICCES) are highlighted as important institutions for skills development.

Key Information

1. Education System Overview

Basic education in Ghana includes primary and junior secondary, totaling nine years.
Net enrolment rates in primary education increased from 59% in 2004/05 to nearly 79% in 2006/07.
Junior secondary education net admission rates rose from 12.2% to 44.4% in the same period.
Senior secondary education has lower net enrolment rates (10.6%), and most students opt for the general secondary curriculum over TVET.

2. Skills Development

Non-formal training and apprenticeships are widespread, especially in the informal sector.
Formal vocational training is less common and perceived as less effective.
TVET has seen a decline in participation, from about 21,400 in 2004 to 18,000 in 2006.

3. Employment and Earnings Patterns

Wage workers earn significantly more than self-employed individuals, especially in agriculture.
Time use analysis shows that time poverty is a concern, particularly in rural areas.
The distribution of time worked varies by age group, locality, and type of employment.
The wage density function indicates that earnings have increased over time, especially for younger workers.

4. Migration and Skills

International migration from Ghana is significant, with OECD and non-OECD countries being major destinations.
College-educated migrants tend to have better labor market outcomes abroad.
There is a brain drain concern, as highly skilled individuals often migrate to developed economies.
Education investment in international migrants is substantial, with estimates of total education investment for migrants.

5. Policy Implications

The National Youth Employment Program (NYEP) is a major policy initiative, but it faces leakage issues, with not all eligible youth receiving benefits.
Public works and youth employment programs are important for poverty reduction.
The National Qualification Framework (NQF) and National Vocational Training Institute (NTVI) are key to structuring and improving skills development.

Conclusion

The report underscores the importance of education and skills development in improving labor market outcomes in Ghana. While formal education has a clear and positive impact on earnings and employment, TVET and apprenticeships have weaker evidence of effectiveness. The findings also highlight the need for better policy design and implementation to ensure that youth and other groups benefit from skills development programs, especially in the context of growing concerns about brain drain, time poverty, and leakage in youth employment programs.

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