2010年-世界发展银行全球_Determinants_of_and_Trends_in_Labor_Force_Participation_of_Women_in_Turkey_80页_4mb

Summary of "Determinants of and Trends in Labor Force Participation of Women in Turkey"

Core Content

This working paper examines the trends and determinants of female labor force participation in Turkey from 1988 to 2006. It highlights the role of demographic, educational, and economic factors in shaping women's labor market behavior, particularly focusing on the differences between urban and rural areas.

Main Views and Key Information

1. Female Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

• The LFPR of women in Turkey is significantly lower than EU and OECD averages.
  • In 2006, it was 24.9%, compared to 66.1% in the EU-27 and 60.8% in OECD countries.
  • It declined from 34.3% in 1988 to 24.9% in 2006.
• Urban LFPR has been lower and more stable than rural LFPR, with urban participation rates always below 20%.
• Rural LFPR also declined over time, from 50.7% in 1988 to 33% in 2006.
• The aging population is expected to further reduce LFPR in rural areas.
• Younger urban women have shown increasing participation rates, especially between the ages of 25–29, where it increased by 8.5 percentage points from 1988 to 2006.

2. Education and Labor Participation

• Education is a strong determinant of labor force participation.
• University graduates have the highest LFPR in urban areas (70%), while women without a high school diploma have very low LFPR (below 15%).
• Education level is positively correlated with LFPR, and higher education levels are associated with stronger age effects.
• Participation rates of university graduates fell sharply between 1988 and 1999, then stabilized at about 70% after 2000.

3. Demographic Factors

• Marriage is widespread in Turkey, with 98% of women married by age 49.
• Married women have lower LFPR than single women.
  • Single women: 34.3%
  • Married women: 23.1%
• In urban areas, the gap is even more pronounced:
  • Single women: 35%
  • Married women: 15.5%
• Fertility also affects LFPR, with women with children having lower participation rates, especially in urban areas.

4. Migration and Participation

• Internal migration is a key factor in Turkey, with urban migrants showing higher LFPR than non-migrants.
• Women from rural areas (especially villages) have lower LFPR in urban areas, but this is explained by their personal characteristics.
• Women from cities also show lower LFPR than non-migrants, suggesting other unobserved factors may be at play.

5. Agricultural Sector and Female Labor

• Agriculture remains a major employer for women in Turkey, with nearly 60% still working in the sector.
• Unpaid family work is common, especially in rural areas, where 40% of working women are unpaid family workers.
• Declining agricultural wages and worsening terms of trade have contributed to the fall in rural LFPR.
• Shift to less labor-intensive agricultural products and reclassification of rural areas as urban are also mentioned as factors.

6. Trends in Hours Worked

• The prevalence of part-time work has not increased in urban areas.
• Over 70% of working women in Turkey work 40 hours or more per week.
• Urban women are more likely to work longer hours than their rural counterparts.

7. Cohort and Time Effects

• Later birth cohorts in urban areas have higher LFPR than earlier ones.
• Later birth cohorts in rural areas have lower LFPR.
• Younger women in urban areas are more likely to work longer hours than older cohorts.
• The composition of the workforce is shifting towards more educated women, contributing to the overall increase in LFPR.

8. Policy Implications

• The decline in LFPR among women, especially in rural areas, is driven by multiple factors including urbanization, agricultural decline, and demographic changes.
• Highly educated urban women have lower LFPR than expected, possibly due to higher reservation wages or unobserved factors.
• Low-skilled women have very low and stagnant LFPR, with less than 12% in 2006, compared to over 67% for low-skilled men.
• Wage gaps and high reservation wages are likely reasons for the low participation of low-skilled women.

9. Methodology

• The study uses time series and cohort analysis to decompose age, cohort, and calendar year effects.
• Pseudo-panel techniques are used to analyze changes in participation and hours worked.
• Multivariate logit analyses are conducted for different education levels to assess the impact of children, household wealth, and age on LFPR.

Conclusion

The paper concludes that female labor force participation in Turkey is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including urbanization, education, marital status, fertility, and agricultural trends. While urban areas have seen some increase in participation, particularly among younger women, rural areas continue to experience declining participation rates. Education is a key driver of higher LFPR, and demographic and economic shifts are critical in understanding the long-term trends. The low participation of low-skilled women is attributed to low wages, high reservation wages, and family responsibilities, which are further compounded by unobserved characteristics. The findings suggest the need for targeted policies to improve female labor participation, especially in rural areas and among low-skilled women.