2012年-CEPS欧洲政策研究中心_Land_Markets_in_the_EU_Candidate_Countries_of_Croatia_Former_Yugoslav_Republic_of_Macedonia_and_Turkey_14页_219kb

Summary of Land Markets in the EU Candidate Countries of Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey

Core Content

This paper provides an overview and comparative analysis of agricultural land markets and land productivity in three EU candidate countries: Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYR of Macedonia), and Turkey. The study focuses on the historical evolution, institutional environments, land reforms, and the impact of national and EU policies on land markets and agricultural competitiveness.

Main Aggregates and Comparisons

Land Markets

• Land Endowment: Agricultural land endowment is a key factor in agricultural production and a potential source of natural comparative advantage.
• Land Area: Turkey is significantly larger than Croatia and the FYR of Macedonia in terms of total area, arable land, and cultivated area.
• Cultivated Area: The percentage of total area cultivated has declined since the 1990s. Turkey has the highest percentage of cultivated land (35.1%), followed by FYR of Macedonia (31.8%) and Croatia (31.8%).
• Fallow Land: Croatia has a relatively low percentage of fallow land (1%), while Turkey has a higher percentage (1.1%).
• Irrigated Land: Turkey has the highest percentage of irrigated land (13.2%), followed by FYR of Macedonia (2.7%) and Croatia (0.7%).

Sectoral Structure of Agricultural Production

• Gross Agricultural Production: Turkey's production is over 20 times higher than Croatia's and about twice as high as FYR of Macedonia's.
• Crop vs. Livestock Production: In all three countries, crop production dominates over livestock. However, Croatia has the highest share of livestock, while FYR of Macedonia has the highest share of crops.
• Cereals and Value-Added Crops: Croatia has a higher share of cereals in crop production, while Turkey has a higher importance of high-value-added crops like fruits and vegetables.

Agricultural Factor Endowments

• Arable Land per Person: Turkey has the highest arable land per person (0.30 ha), followed by FYR of Macedonia (0.21 ha) and Croatia (0.19 ha).
• Fertilizer Consumption: Croatia has the highest fertilizer consumption per hectare (154 kg), while Turkey has the lowest (100 kg).
• Tractors per 100 km² of Arable Land: Croatia has a significantly higher number of tractors (2228.7) compared to FYR of Macedonia (1243.8) and Turkey (473.9). However, the data for Croatia may be less accurate.

Land Productivity

• Wheat Yields: Croatia has yields slightly lower than the EU average but higher than Turkey. FYR of Macedonia has yields lower than both Croatia and Turkey.
• Maize Yields: Turkey has the highest maize yields, followed by Croatia, with FYR of Macedonia having the lowest. All three countries have seen increases in yields, with Turkey and Croatia approaching or surpassing EU levels.

Factors Shaping Land Markets

Historical Evolution

• Turkey: Land markets were shaped by Ottoman and Islamic rules, with later reforms contributing to modern institutional structures.
• Croatia and FYR of Macedonia: Both have undergone similar land reforms influenced by the former Yugoslavia, leading to a bimodal land ownership structure with many small family farms and a few large state enterprises.
• Post-1991 Reforms: Land reforms in Croatia and FYR of Macedonia have not led to major changes in agricultural structures, as most land remains in private family ownership.

Land Reforms and Land Market Settings

• Land Ownership: In all three countries, domestic natural persons can own agricultural land without restrictions, but foreign entities face limitations.
• Legal Restrictions:
  • In FYR of Macedonia, foreign natural persons can own land only if inherited with reciprocity, if they have lived in the country for several years, or if they are a farming company.
  • In Croatia, foreign entities face more restrictions, especially during the pre-accession period.
  • In Turkey, domestic legal entities and foreign natural/legal persons can only own apartments or firms, not agricultural land.

Land Sales and Rental Transactions

• Land Sales: There is no minimum or maximum sales price in the three countries. However, state-owned land in FYR of Macedonia cannot be sold, only rented.
• Land Sale Prices:
  • Croatia: €5,000 to €7,000 per ha.
  • FYR of Macedonia: €2,500 to €40,000 per ha, with higher prices in urban and construction areas (up to €100,000 per ha).
  • Turkey: 50,000 to 80,000 Turkish Liras (TL) per ha, with the most fertile land costing up to 150,000 TL per ha.
• Transaction Costs: Registration taxes and cadastral costs are involved in land sales, with FYR of Macedonia imposing a 2–4% registration tax.

Land Rental Transactions

• Land Rental: Land rental is a common practice in all three countries, particularly in FYR of Macedonia, where it plays a key role in land market activity.
• Priority Rights: Co-owners and neighbors have priority rights in FYR of Macedonia, while tenants have pre-emption rights in Croatia and Turkey.

Agricultural Support and Land Prices

• Agricultural Support: Agricultural support policies have a significant impact on land prices and rental prices, with EU CAP subsidies affecting rental prices more than land prices.
• Government Influence: Land prices are more responsive to government-based returns than market-based ones.

Policy Implications and Conclusions

• Land Market Imperfections: The lack of a well-functioning land market and land leasing market is a major issue in FYR of Macedonia, affecting land consolidation and structural changes in farm operations.
• Fragmentation: Inheritance systems have led to land fragmentation, which hampers the modernization of agriculture.
• Regional Differences: Turkey exhibits significant regional differences in land markets due to its diverse historical and institutional background.
• EU Integration: The process of EU enlargement has influenced land market regulations and agricultural policies in all three countries.
• Land Productivity and Efficiency: Land productivity varies significantly, with Turkey showing the highest efficiency in land use and management practices.

The paper highlights the importance of institutional reforms, land market development, and agricultural support policies in shaping the competitiveness of the agricultural sector in these candidate countries.