世界银行-了解欧盟27国私营企业中女性作为工人_高层管理人员和所有者的参与率低于男性（英）-2025_11页_1mb

EU-27 Female Labor Market and Firm Ownership Analysis (Enterprise Note No. 45)

Overview

Women's participation as workers, top managers, and firm owners in the EU-27 is statistically significantly lower than men's. This gender gap is larger in richer NUTS2 regions. A worrying feature is the concentration of women in less productive and low-wage firms.

Key Findings

1. Gender Disparities: Across firms and NUTS2 regions, women have lower employment rates, fewer top manager positions, and less firm ownership compared to men.
2. Regional Variation: Gender gaps are larger in transition and most developed NUTS2 regions.
3. Productivity Gap: Women-run firms and those with higher female ownership have lower labor productivity, contributing to the gender gap.
4. Industry Effects: Retail firms employ more women, narrowing the gap, while manufacturing has the lowest productivity and contributes to the gap.
5. Constraints:
   • Financial constraints: Average women's employment is higher in regions with higher women's ownership.
   • Other factors: Foreign ownership reduces gender productivity gaps.

Factors Contributing to the Gap

• Country & Industry Factors: ExPLAIN (endowment/structural effects).
• Top Management: The presence of women top managers is associated with higher female worker participation.
• Regulation: Regulatory burden significantly affects women-run firms' productivity.
• R&D Activity: Women-run firms conduct less R&D.

Conclusion

The EU-27 face a mix of "glass ceilings" and "sticky floors" in their labor markets. Achieving gender equity requires not only increasing female employment but also improving job quality.