2011年-世界发展银行全球_Urban_Road_Transportation_Externalities___Costs_and_Choice_of_Policy_Instruments_30页_330kb

Summary of Urban Road Transportation Externalities: Costs and Choice of Policy Instruments

Core Content

Urban road transportation externalities are significant development challenges, particularly in developing countries. These externalities include local air pollution, traffic congestion, and traffic accidents, which impose substantial economic, environmental, and social costs. The study evaluates various policy instruments to mitigate these externalities and discusses the factors influencing their selection.

Main Externalities and Their Costs

Local Air Pollution

• Major pollutants: Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and total suspended particulates (TSP).
• Impact: Vehicular emissions contribute significantly to air quality problems in developing countries' megacities, accounting for 40-80% of the issue.
• Costs:
  • In developing countries, the cost of local air pollution (e.g., PM₁₀) can range from 1% to 3% of national GDP.
  • Example: In Beijing (China), the cost of PM₁₀ in 2000 was 3.3% of GDP.
  • In Jakarta (Indonesia), the cost of PM₁₀ was 1.0% of GDP in 1998.
  • In Thailand, the cost was 1.6% of GDP over 1996–99.
  • In Philippines, the cost was 0.6% of GDP in 2001.

Traffic Congestion

• Costs:
  • In Bangkok (Thailand), congestion cost was 2.1% of GDP in 1996.
  • In Manila (Philippines), it was 0.7% of GDP.
  • In Santiago, Chile, congestion cost was 0.59% of GDP in 1994.
  • In the United States, total congestion costs in 68 major urban areas were $78 billion (0.84% of GDP) in 1999.
  • In 2006, congestion costs in the U.S. were $67.6 billion, while accident costs were $164.2 billion.

Traffic Accidents

• Impact: Cause hundreds of thousands of deaths and millions of injuries annually.
• Costs vary: Higher in developed countries due to greater healthcare and productivity costs.
• Example: In the U.S., accident costs were 4.6% of GDP in 1994; in Vietnam, it was 0.3% of GDP in 1998.

Policy Instruments

Fiscal Policy Instruments

• Fuel Taxes:

  • Raise government revenue and reduce emissions and congestion.
  • A 10% increase in fuel price reduces vehicle mileage by 75% within a year.
  • In OECD countries, a higher fuel tax (like in EU countries) reduces gasoline consumption by 44%, while a lower tax (like in the U.S.) increases it by 31%.

• Vehicle Taxes:

  • Discourage vehicle ownership.
  • In Singapore, vehicle taxes like the Vehicle Quota System (VQS) have effectively reduced private vehicle ownership.
  • In Hong Kong, registration taxes and license fees have curbed fleet growth.

• Emission Taxes:

  • Include taxes on local pollutants (SPMs, VOCs), regional pollutants (NOx, SOx), and GHG emissions (e.g., carbon tax).
  • Carbon tax is widely discussed in literature due to its relevance to climate change.

• Congestion Charges:

  • Aim to reduce traffic congestion and generate revenue.
  • Implemented in Singapore, London, and other cities.
  • In London, a congestion charge of £5 reduced city-center traffic by 12%.
  • In New York, a congestion charge could reduce traffic by 5%.
  • In Copenhagen, proposed schemes could reduce CO₂ emissions by 11.5 to 154 million tons annually.

• Subsidies:

  • Three types: for public transportation, clean fuels, and clean vehicles.
  • Subsidies for public transport can encourage modal shift and reduce emissions and congestion.
  • Subsidies for biofuels and clean vehicles are common in countries like Brazil, EU, and U.S..
  • EVs are more expensive than conventional cars, so subsidies are necessary to promote their adoption.

Regulatory Policy Instruments

• Fuel Economy Standards:

  • Implemented in developed countries to improve energy efficiency and reduce emissions.
  • In the U.S., the CAFE standard increased fuel economy from 14 mpg (mid-1970s) to 21 mpg (mid-1990s).
  • Targets for 2008/2009: 140 grams of CO₂ per kilometer, a 25% reduction from 1995 levels.
  • In Japan, targets for fuel economy were set for 2005 (diesel) and 2010 (gasoline).
  • In China and South Korea, similar standards are in place.

• Emission Standards:

  • Mandate lower emissions from vehicles.
  • Include caps on exhaust emissions and promote cleaner technologies.

• Fuel Quality Standards:

  • Limit the content of pollutants in fuels (e.g., sulfur in diesel).
  • Improve the effectiveness of pollution control technologies.

Key Factors Influencing Policy Choice

• Economic efficiency: Policies that yield the most cost-effective reduction in externalities are preferred.
• Equity: Consideration of the impact on different income groups.
• Country or city-specific priorities: Some cities prioritize congestion reduction, while others focus on pollution control.
• Institutional capacity: The ability to implement and enforce policies affects their adoption.

Conclusion

• Urban transportation externalities are widespread and costly, particularly in developing countries.
• Fiscal instruments like fuel and vehicle taxes, emission taxes, congestion charges, and subsidies are essential in reducing these externalities.
• Regulatory instruments such as fuel economy and emission standards also play a role.
• Policy combinations are often necessary to address the multifaceted nature of transportation externalities.
• Further research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness and mutual exclusivity of different policy instruments.