2012年-世界发展银行全球_Market-Based_Instruments_for_International_Aviation_and_Shipping_as_a_Source_of_Climate_Finance_67页_1mb

Summary of "Market-Based Instruments for International Aviation and Shipping as a Source of Climate Finance"

Core Content

This paper explores the potential of market-based instruments (MBIs) for international aviation and shipping as a source of climate finance. It addresses the challenges and implications of implementing carbon charges on fuels used in these sectors, focusing on minimizing adverse impacts on low-income countries and ensuring effective implementation.

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Main Points

1. Current Tax Treatment and Emissions

• International aviation and shipping are currently exempt from fuel taxes and value-added taxes (VAT), unlike domestic transport.
• These sectors contribute at least 5% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with aviation at ~1.5% and shipping at ~2–3% in 2007.
• Emissions from both sectors are largely from international activities, with 83% of maritime emissions and 62% of aviation emissions coming from international operations.

2. Potential Revenue from Carbon Charges

• A $25/ton CO₂ charge could generate ~$12 billion annually from aviation and ~$26 billion from shipping by 2020.
• These charges could reduce emissions by at least 5–10%.
• Compensation for developing countries may be necessary, with such compensation potentially accounting for up to 40% of the total revenue.

3. Key Considerations

• Incidence of the charges is a critical issue: it refers to who actually bears the cost of the policy.
• Legal and political challenges exist, particularly for aviation due to bilateral air service agreements (BSAs).
• Non-discrimination and fair treatment of countries and sectors are essential for both industries.
• Compensatory mechanisms are important to ensure developing countries are not made worse off.

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Policy Scenarios

International Aviation

• Scenarios include the use of carbon taxes or emissions trading systems (ETS).
• Environmental effectiveness is high, with significant emission reductions possible.
• Revenue potential is substantial, but the incidence on developing countries (especially through tourism) needs careful analysis.
• Challenges include bilateral agreements, fuel price responsiveness, and economic distortions.

International Shipping

• MBIs are being considered by the IMO, including levies, charges, and ETS.
• Revenue potential is even greater than aviation, with $26 billion estimated by 2020.
• Efficiency and second-best considerations suggest that fuel efficiency measures may be more effective than carbon charges in some cases.
• Compensation is also needed for developing countries, with revenue sharing and rebate mechanisms proposed.

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Implementation Challenges

1. Fuel Taxes vs. ETS

• The paper advocates for carbon charges based on fuel content as the most effective MBI.
• ETS could also be used, but carbon taxes are simpler and more transparent.
• The choice between MBIs depends on economic efficiency, administrative feasibility, and equity considerations.

2. Legal and Political Barriers

• Aviation faces legal obstacles due to bilateral agreements and multilateral treaties like the Chicago Convention.
• Shipping has fewer legal barriers, as excise taxes on fuels are not prohibited by formal agreements.
• Compensation mechanisms are necessary to offset the economic burden on developing countries.

3. Sovereignty and Governance

• Issues of sovereignty and governance are central to the implementation of MBIs.
• The UNFCCC principle of common but differentiated responsibilities supports the use of compensatory transfers to ensure fairness.

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Key Concepts

• Demand and supply elasticity determine the impact of carbon charges on prices and trade.
• Incidence refers to the actual economic burden of a policy, whether legal or real.
• Compensation is required to ensure that developing countries are not negatively affected by the charges.

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Conclusion

• A global carbon charge on international aviation and shipping fuels is a viable climate finance mechanism.
• It can be combined with compensation to address equity concerns and support developing countries.
• The implementation of such charges requires international cooperation, legal adjustments, and policy coordination.
• Both ICAO and IMO are actively considering MBIs, and the paper draws on their existing work and proposals.

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Policy Implications

• Uniform application of carbon charges is necessary to avoid double taxation and market distortions.
• MBIs should be implemented in tandem with technical and operational measures to enhance environmental effectiveness.
• Climate finance can be raised effectively through fuel charges, provided fair compensation is given to developing countries.
• The EU-ETS may be a model, but its application to international aviation and shipping is under legal challenge.

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References and Appendices

• The paper includes glossary of terms, tables, figures, and boxes that provide detailed analysis and context.
• Appendices cover compensation mechanisms, optimal tax rates, and price impacts of selective fuel taxes.