2021-12-01-世界银行-从工作到职业_发展中国家妇女的服装出口和职业道路（英）_181页_12mb

From Jobs to Careers: Apparel Exports and Career Paths for Women in Developing Countries

Introduction

This report explores how the apparel industry, particularly through global value chains (GVCs), contributes to women's transition from jobs to careers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). While apparel exports create formal employment opportunities, especially for women, they often fall short of fostering sustainable "careers," which require higher education, longer-term commitment, and better wages. The analysis is based on seven middle-income countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Egypt, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Vietnam.

Key Findings

• Apparel's Role: The industry provides remunerated jobs but few careers. It employs more women than men in lower-skill positions, yet barriers to advancement—such as limited access to high-skill opportunities (HSOs), inadequate education levels, and societal norms—hinder the transition to careers.
• Barriers to Career Development:
  • Low Service Demand: In low-middle-income countries, insufficient income limits demand for professional services, which are key to careers.
  • Education Gaps: Many women lack the education (e.g., upper-secondary or tertiary) required for HSOs, though graduates in Egypt, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam show promise.
  • Cultural Norms: Legal restrictions, mobility issues, and workplace harassment (e.g., in Egypt and Pakistan) discourage female participation in the workforce.
• Economic Patterns: Employment shifts from agriculture to manufacturing and services follow a U-shape, but women's access to higher-income opportunities remains limited by structural factors.
• Apparel GVC Limitations: LMICs are locked into low-value-adding activities due to asymmetric power dynamics with lead firms in high-income countries, limiting long-term career prospects.

Policy Recommendations

To accelerate the jobs-to-careers transition:

• Increase Female Participation in Production: Implement programs to attract and retain women in export-oriented manufacturing, addressing mobility, safety, and transportation challenges.
• Promote Career Advancement: Expand internships, skill training, and partnerships between industry and education to upskill women for mid-skill and HSOs.
• Boost Education Access: Focus on increasing upper-secondary enrollment, especially in regions with low educational attainment.
• Break Glass Ceilings: Reform laws prohibiting gender discrimination, enforce equal pay measures, and promote inclusive workplace practices.

Conclusion

While the apparel industry offers a launching pad for women into formal employment, complementary policies are essential to achieve sustainable careers. By addressing education gaps, societal barriers, and governance issues, LMICs can foster a "quiet revolution" that empowers women economically and socially.