战略与国际研究中心-The-Lessons-of-Modern-War_86页_354kb

XIV. The Tanker War and the Lessons of Naval Conflict

14.0 The Tanker and Naval Wars

The Iran-Iraq War involved two major forms of naval conflict:

1. Iraq's Tanker War: Aimed at disrupting Iran's oil exports by attacking tankers.
2. U.S.-led Western Naval Presence: Designed to protect neutral Gulf countries' shipping and ensure the free passage of tankers to Kuwait.

Both conflicts led to significant escalation, with Iran responding by pressuring Southern Gulf states to stop supporting Iraq, and the U.S. and its allies being drawn into increasing clashes with Iran, which eventually influenced Iran's decision to agree to a ceasefire.

The war provided valuable lessons in escalation, conflict management, and the use of naval, air, and missile systems. It highlighted the challenges of low-intensity naval warfare, the importance of targeting and identification systems, and the need for effective mine warfare and missile defense capabilities.

14.1 Naval Operations and The "Tanker War"

14.1.1 The Beginning and Initial Impact of the "Tanker War": 1980-1984

The tanker war began as a relatively minor conflict but evolved into a significant part of the war's naval dimension by its fourth year. It involved attacks on neutral and third-country tankers by both Iraq and Iran, often using missiles, rockets, and mines.

Key events include:

• 1980: Iranian shelling damaged three foreign freighters near Khorramshahr.
• 1981: Iraqi aircraft damaged a Panamanian bulk carrier and a Liberian tanker.
• 1982: Iraqi missiles damaged the Turkish tanker Atlas and the Greek Iapetos.
• 1983: Iraqi missiles damaged the Safina-Al-Arab (Saudi), Yanbu Pride (Saudi), and Cleo-1 (Panamanian), while Iranian jets attacked the Primrose (Japanese) and British Renown (British).
• 1984: Iraqi missiles sank the Fidelity (Panamanian) and World Knight (Liberian), while Iranian planes damaged the Gaz Fountain (Panamanian) and Kanchenjunga (Indian).

The initial phase of the tanker war was characterized by limited attacks and a slow escalation. Iraq struggled with limited range and targeting capabilities, and its early attempts to strike at Iranian ships were often ineffective. The Super Etendard jets, equipped with Exocet missiles, were a turning point, offering Iraq greater reach and precision.

Key Lessons from the Tanker War

• Iraq's inability to disrupt Iran's oil exports: Despite numerous attacks, Iraq never managed to significantly reduce Iran's oil exports due to lack of targeting assets, inadequate weaponry, and insufficient operational experience.
• Iran's asymmetric response: Iran used revolutionary forces with small boats and rockets to strike at ships supporting Iraq, demonstrating the threat of unconventional warfare in naval contexts.
• U.S. and Western success in power projection: Western forces were effective in controlling and terminating the conflict, but faced challenges in low-level warfare, including:
  • Mine warfare capabilities
  • Missile defense systems
  • Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems to distinguish between friendly and hostile vessels.
• Need for advanced missile defense and reconnaissance: The war highlighted the importance of reliable missile defense systems, modern naval reconnaissance aircraft, and improved targeting and identification technologies.
• Impact of technology: The Exocet missile, though not always effective against large ships, caused significant damage to smaller and more vulnerable vessels. It was used by Iraq and had a high hit rate, but often failed to detonate, indicating issues with weapon reliability.
• Strategic and tactical limitations: Iraq's late adoption of advanced air-to-ship missiles (e.g., Silkworm) and suicide attack capabilities (unconfirmed) shows the challenges of integrating new technology and the importance of intelligence and training.
• Operational complexity: The war demonstrated the need for tailored command and control systems and specialized training to handle the unique conditions of low-intensity naval conflict.

Summary of Key Systems and Capabilities

• Iraqi Missiles:
  • AS-2 Kipper: Obsolete Soviet anti-shipping missile.
  • Exocet (AS-12): Used by Super Etendard jets, effective against smaller vessels.
  • AS-4 Kelt: Stand-off missile carried by Tu-22 bombers.
  • AS-6 Kingfish: Precision-guided Mach 3 missile, not widely exported.
• Iraqi Aircraft:
  • Super Etendard: Key in later stages of the war, with improved range and capability.
  • Mirage F-1: Used for early attacks, but lacked precision and range.
• Iranian Countermeasures:
  • Use of revolutionary forces with small boats and rockets.
  • F-4 jet fighters and F-5/F-7 aircraft for attacks on neutral and third-country vessels.
  • Mine warfare and unconventional tactics to disrupt enemy supply lines.

Conclusion

The tanker war was a critical component of the Iran-Iraq War, illustrating the strategic importance of maritime commerce and the challenges of controlling naval conflict. It underscored the limitations of conventional naval forces in low-intensity warfare and the importance of asymmetric tactics. The war also provided valuable lessons for the West, including the need for advanced missile defense, reliable IFF systems, and effective command and control structures in complex naval environments.