世界发展银行-Encouraging-Women_rsquo_s-Economic-Opportunities-in-Croatia---Empirical-Evidence-of-Determinants-and-Policy-Advice_81页_2mb

Summary of "Encouraging Women's Economic Opportunities in Croatia: Empirical Evidence of Determinants and Policy Advice"

Core Content

This report examines the factors affecting female labor force participation (LFP) in Croatia and proposes policy interventions to enhance women's economic opportunities. It highlights the persistent gender gap in LFP and employment, identifies the main determinants, and evaluates the impact of social norms, labor market regulations, and childcare availability on women's participation in the labor market.

Main Findings

• Gender Gap in LFP: In 2019, female LFP in Croatia was 10.4 percentage points lower than male LFP, below the EU average (11.7) but larger than in 16 EU countries. Female LFP was 66.1%, compared to the EU average of 72.9%, while male LFP was 76.5%, the lowest in the EU.
• Demographic Trends: Croatia's working-age population (20-64) is projected to decline by 8.85% by 2040 due to aging and emigration, exacerbating labor shortages.
• Key Determinants:
  • Childcare and Family Responsibilities: The primary reason for female inactivity is child-rearing and other family duties. In 2019, 27.9% of inactive women cited family responsibilities, compared to 9.4% of inactive men.
  • Maternity vs. Paternity Leave: Croatia offers generous maternity leave but lacks compulsory paternity leave, which does not encourage shared child-rearing responsibilities. Men's participation in parental leave is low compared to other EU countries.
  • School Day Length: Women with children in schools with longer school days are less likely to be inactive, suggesting that extended school hours could reduce the burden on mothers.
  • Elder Care: The availability of elder care services also affects female LFP, though the impact is less pronounced than that of childcare.
  • Social Norms: Patriarchal views are more prevalent in Croatia and are negatively associated with women's labor participation. These views are more common among men, older individuals, and less-educated groups.
  • Labor Market Regulations: Croatia lags behind EU counterparts in labor market flexibility, ease of hiring/firing, and active labor market policies.
  • Educational and Occupational Choices: Women are less likely to be employed in construction and manufacturing and more likely in education, health, and services. However, the wage gap is not due to sectoral or educational sorting but exists within industries and fields.
  • Geographic Mobility: Limited mobility among workers, especially women, affects their ability to access job opportunities.

Policy Recommendations

• Expand Paternity Leave: Introduce compulsory paternity leave to encourage a more equitable distribution of childcare responsibilities between men and women.
• Improve Childcare Access: Increase availability and affordability of childcare services, particularly for low-income families, to reduce the burden on mothers and enhance their labor participation.
• Enhance Active Labor Market Policies: Increase the expenditure and effectiveness of active labor market policies to support re-entry of inactive women into the workforce.
• Address Inactivity Trap: Modify benefit structures to avoid abrupt withdrawal when transitioning from inactivity to employment, especially for low earners with children.
• Promote Flexible Employment: Encourage part-time and flexible job opportunities to better accommodate the needs of women with family responsibilities.
• Transform Social Norms: Implement policies that challenge traditional gender roles and promote more gender-neutral attitudes toward work and family responsibilities.
• Support Second-Generation Immigrants: Tailor policies to address the specific challenges faced by second-generation immigrants, particularly women, who may have lower LFP due to cultural and social factors.

Key Groups and Trends

• High Inactivity Rates: Young (15-24), low-educated, and Roma women have the highest inactivity rates in Croatia.
• Educational Differences: Female LFP is higher among highly educated women, while low-educated women have some of the lowest participation rates in the EU.
• Regional Disparities: There are significant regional differences in female LFP. Adriatic Croatia has larger gender gaps among older women, while Continental Croatia has lower participation rates for older women.
• Impact of the Pandemic: The current COVID-19 crisis may increase the burden on Croatian mothers, leading to higher inactivity and greater gender inequality.

Conclusion

The report emphasizes that improving women's economic opportunities in Croatia requires a multifaceted approach addressing both formal and informal constraints. By reforming family leave policies, enhancing childcare access, and promoting flexible labor market practices, Croatia can reduce the gender gap in LFP and employment, contributing to economic growth and the sustainability of social security systems.