2013年-世界发展银行全球_Bhutan_Gender_Policy_Note_61页_2mb

Summary of BHUTAN GENDER POLICY NOTE (2013)

Core Content

This Gender Policy Note (GPN) 2013, prepared by the National Commission for Women and Children (NCWC) in collaboration with the World Bank and AusAID, provides an analysis of gender-related issues in Bhutan with a focus on economic empowerment. It highlights the progress made in gender equality and outlines areas where more needs to be done, as well as policy recommendations to further improve gender equality.

The report is based on a combination of quantitative and qualitative data, including the Bhutan Living Standard Survey (BLSS), Bhutan Multiple Indicator Survey (BMIS), Labor Force Surveys (LFS/LFSR), and Rapid Qualitative Assessments (RQA) and Supplemental Qualitative Assessments (SQA). It applies the analytical framework from the 2012 World Development Report on Gender and Development (WDR 2012) to the Bhutan context, focusing on two key areas: matrilineal inheritance and land holding, and gender gaps in labor markets and job quality.

Main Findings

3.1. Matrilineal Inheritance and Land Holding

• Land ownership is crucial for both men and women in Bhutan as it provides direct economic benefits, serves as collateral for credit, and is a key input for agricultural production.
• Matrilineal inheritance is a unique feature of Bhutan, especially in western and central regions, where women often inherit land and property, including livestock.
• Regional variations exist:
  • In western and central regions, matrilineal inheritance is common, with the eldest daughter inheriting land.
  • In southern regions, patrilineal inheritance is more prevalent, with land passing to sons.
• Approximately 60% of rural women have land registered in their names, and 45% of urban property titles (such as shares, buildings, and licenses) are registered to women.
• Inheritance practices vary by generation:
  • Elderly tend to follow traditional norms, with land inherited by the eldest daughter in matrilineal communities.
  • Adults are more likely to distribute land equally among children, influenced by the Land Inheritance Act.
  • Youth show a preference for equal inheritance for both genders, though some still favor sons for caregiving roles.

3.2. Gender Gaps in Labor Markets and Job Quality

• Female labor force participation is high in Bhutan, with 67% of women and 72% of men participating in the labor force.
• However, job quality remains an issue:
  • Women earn 75% of what men earn for similar work.
  • Only 6% of female workers are regular paid employees, compared to 18% of male workers.
  • Women are underrepresented in executive-level civil service, with only 7% being women.
• The main causes of the job quality gap include:
  • Education endowment: Limited access to higher secondary and tertiary education for girls.
  • Sex segregation: Women are often confined to lower-paying and less secure jobs.
  • Gender roles: Women bear the majority of household chores and childcare, which limits their career advancement and working hours.

Key Policy Recommendations

The GPN proposes five key policy intervention areas to improve gender equality:

4.1. Promote Equal Ownership and Agency Over Land

• Strengthen land ownership rights for women to ensure they can access credit and economic opportunities.
• Enhance "agency" over land so women can make informed economic decisions.

4.2. Improve Women's Education Endowment

• Increase academic performance of girls at the secondary level to improve their labor productivity and earning potential.
• Encourage equal educational opportunities to reduce gender disparities in skill development.

4.3. Improve Women's Job Quality and Career Advancement

• Support vocational and life-skills training for girls to enhance their access to better jobs.
• Encourage equal participation in the labor market and improve career mobility for women.

4.4. Address Social Norms Leading to Gender Inequality

• Promote greater male involvement in childcare and housework.
• Introduce gender-equal attitudes to children by distributing equal household responsibilities among sons and daughters.
• Improve basic literacy among women to encourage more open attitudes and empower them to exercise their rights.

4.5. Conduct Further Research on Gender Gap in Happiness

• Investigate the gender gap in happiness to better understand how gender equality affects well-being and Gross National Happiness (GNH).

Conclusion

Bhutan has made significant progress in gender equality over the past few decades, particularly in education and healthcare. The Gross National Happiness (GNH) philosophy has played a key role in this transformation. However, persistent gender gaps in land inheritance and labor market participation remain, which hinder economic growth and women's empowerment.

The report emphasizes that gender equality is not only a moral imperative but also smart economics. By addressing cultural and institutional barriers, Bhutan can continue to enhance gender equality and economic development.

Key Stakeholders and Support

• The GPN was prepared by Aphicheke Kotikula (PRMGE) under the guidance of Maria Correia (Sector Manager, Social Development).
• John Henry Stein (Sector Director, SASSD) and Robert Saum (Country Director, Bhutan) provided overall guidance.
• The National Commission for Women and Children (NCWC) and various ministries and organizations contributed to the report, including the Ministry of Labor and Human Resources (MoLHR), Ministry of Education (MoE), Center for Bhutan Studies (CBS), and UNDP.
• The report was supported by the AusAID grant through the South Asia Gender (SAGE) Initiative.

Acknowledgements

• The NCWC acknowledges the support of stakeholders and technical collaboration with the World Bank and AusAID.
• The report team includes Jennifer Solotaroff (SASDS) and Krishna Parajuli (SASEP).
• Lynn provided editorial support, and Muhammad Shafiq and Rita Soni (SASEP) provided administrative support.
• Ugyen Lham and her staff at Druk Associates contributed to qualitative data collection.

This Gender Policy Note serves as a starting point for continued collaboration with the World Bank and other stakeholders to advance gender equality in Bhutan.